Emmanuel Ilesanmi Adeyeye, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ekiti State University, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

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Abstract

Quail eggs are delicious and comparable in taste to the free-range chicken eggs. This research reports on the proximate and mineral composition of whole egg of quail. The egg sample had high values of the following parameters (g/100g): crude protein (48.95), crude fat (CF) (34.05), total fatty acid (TFA) (28.26), other lipids (OLs) (5.79); TFA/CF (%) = 83.0, OLs/CF (%) = 17.0, OLs/TFA (%)=20.48. Energy sources were (kcal/100g): CF (306), TFA (254), OLs (52.1), protein (196) and carbohydrate (0.041). Adult daily energy requirement of 2500 kcal – 3000 kcal would be met by 498 – 597g egg and for infant that needs 740 kcal will be satisfied by 147g of egg. The UEDP% was high at 23.4 – 23.9. Water deficit for complete protein metabolism was 97.9ml. These minerals had high concentration values (mg/100g): Ca (237), Mg (43.7), K (496), Na (553), P (822) and having ultra-trace levels of Pb (0.0025) and Cd (0.0010). Ratio of minor minerals to major minerals was 1.00:166. In the MSI, these minerals might be deleterious on consumption unless present in diet where they can serve as supplements: Na, Ca and Se whereas Mg, Zn, Fe, P, Cu would not. Among the mineral ratios, only Ca/Mg and Fe/Co were within the acceptable ideal range; however, the toxic mineral ratios like Ca/Pb, Fe/Pb and Zn/Cd had values of 2593-94763 which are nutritionally favourable as the nutrient minerals would emasculate the deleterious effect(s) of the toxic minerals as appropriate. Statistical analysis between minor and major minerals did not show any significant difference at α=0.05. Nutrient density rating exhibited these groupings: excellent [protein, Co and Se (3/16 = 18.8%)], very good [Zn and P (2/16 =12.5%)] and good [CF and Fe (2/16 =12.5%)] making up 43.8% whereas below ranking group equalled 9/16 (56.3%).

Keywords: Coturnix coturnix egg, proximate, mineral, water balance, nutrient density.

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INTRODUCTION

The common quail (Coturnix coturnix) is a small bird in the pheasant family Phasianidae (common quail – Wikipedia). Quail is a collective name for several genera of mid-sized birds generally considered in the order Galliformes (Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia). The collective noun for a group of quail is a flock, covey (USGS - Animal Congregations) or bevy (“Bevy”, Merriam - Wester). Common quails are widespread, found in Europe and different from the domesticated Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) which is native to Asia.

Quail birds are of different types in different families, order and genera. They are the followings:

Old world quail are in the family Phasianidae (having four genera and 16 species) and New World quail, found in the family Odontophoridae (having eight genera and 29 species)(Common quail-Wikipedia). Button quails are of superficial resemblance to quail and belong to the Turnicadae family in Charadriiformes order. King quail (Coturnix chinensis) an Old World quail, is often called the “button quail” in the pet trade (Common quail - Wikipedia). Larger species are often farm-raised for table food or egg consumption, hunted on game farms or in the wild where they may supplement the wild population. In 2007, the USA produced 40million quail mostly from hobbysts (Census of Agriculture, USA, 2007).

Accordance to Common quail - Wikipedia, the common quail, under conservation status is listed under Least Concern(LC)(IUCN,2012) and has the following scientific classification. Kingdom: Animalia; Phylum: Chordata; Class: Aves; Order: Galliformes; Family: Phasianidae; Subfamily: Perdicinae; Genus: Coturnix ; Species: C. coturnix; Binomial name: Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus, 1758). This species was first described by Linnaeus in his Systema naturae in 1758 as Tetrao coturnix (Linnaeus, 1758). Other races are: The Eurasian race, C.c.coturnix, overwinters southwards in Africa’s Sahel and India; the populations on Madeira and the Canary Islands belong to the nominate race. The African race, C.c. africana described by Temminck and Sehlegel (1849), is known as African quail. It overwinters within Africa, some often move northwards from South Africa; within this race are common quails of Madagascar and the Comoros; those found around Ethiopia make up a different subspecies, the Abyssinian quail, C.c. erlangeri (Zedlitz, 1912). Also, the numerous population (Krabbe, 2003) of the Cape Verde islands, belong to another separate race, C.c. inopinata (Hartert, 1917) while those on the Azores belong to the race C.c. conturbans (Hartert, 1917).

Common quail measure about 7.1-8.62 inches (18.0-21.9cm) and weighs 3.2-4.62oz (91-131g ) (Hume and Marshall, 1880). Upon attaining an age of 6-8 weeks, the quail breeds on open arable farmland and grassland across most Europe and Asia , laying 6-12 eggs in a ground nest. The eggs take 16-18 days to hatch. Imchen (2013) had discussed the nutritional characteristics of the common quail egg. He reported as follows: the eggs are delicious and comparable in taste to free- range chicken eggs; nutrition value is 3-4 times higher than that of chicken eggs: contain 13% protein whereas chicken eggs have about 11%. They have 140µg of vitamin B1, but 50µg in chicken eggs; much richer in vitamin B2, Fe, K, Ca and P than chicken eggs. They are richer in HDL cholestrol, so even senior citizens can eat them; low in cholesterol level and rich in choline, a chemical essential in brain function ( Imchen, 2013). Imchen (2013)and Sofiya (2012) have also enumerated the health benefits of quail eggs.

This article reports on the proximate, minerals, metabolic water deficit and nutrient denstiy of the egg of the common quail consumed in Nigeria.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples and treatment

Ten eggs of quail were purchased in Iworoko- Ekiti market, Ekiti State, Nigeria. The eggs were authenticated, edible portion removed, oven dried, milled into flour and kept in the laboratory freezer, pending analysis.

Proximate analysis

Moisture was determined gravimetrically using ventilated oven set at 1050C to dry the sample to constant weight (AOAC method 927.05). Crude protein was determined by multiplying the estimated nitrogen (Kjeldahl method) by a factor of 6.25 (AOAC method 955.04C). Crude fat (CF) extraction was carried out by Soxhlet extraction apparatus using chloroform/ methanol (2:1 v/v) mixture (AOAC method 920.39A). Total ash was determined by igniting the sample in a muffle furnace set at 5500C (AOAC method 923.03). Dietary fibre was estimated by the method of AOAC (2006) (AOAC method 985.29) and carbohydrate was estimated by difference, i.e.

Carbohydrate (g/100g) = 100 – (Moisture + Crude protein + Crude fat + Dietary fibre + Ash) …..………… equation (1)

Conversion of CF to true-fatty acid (T-TFA)

Crude fat x 0.83 = T-TFA (Greenfield and Southgate, 2003) ……………… equation (2)

Total energy from protein, fat, carbohydrate, T-TFA and other lipids (OLs)

Total energy (kJ/100g) = (fat x 37) + (protein x 17) + (carbohydrate x 17) …………equation (3)

Total energy (kcal/100g) = (crude fat x 9) + (crude protein x 4) + (carbohydrate x 4) equation (4)

Utilizable energy due to protein (UEDP%) = protein energy in total percentage x 60% …………equation (5)

Energy requirement for infants per day = (740 kcal)/(Total energy) x 100 = sample equivalent …equation (6)

Energy requirement for adult per day = 2500/(Total energy) x 100 = sample equivalent …………… equation (7)

Energy requirement for adult per day = 3000/(Total energy) x 100 = sample equivalent …………… equation (8)

Water requirements for complete protein metabolism

Protein energy = P (kcal/100g)

Water for excretion = (Q) = 3 (P)mla

Water deficit = (350/ 100 x P) = Tml

Water balance = (T – Q) ml ………………………………………………… equation (9)

a= 1 calorie of protein requires 3ml of water for by-product excretion (Albanese, 1959).

Mineral analysis

The minerals were analysed from the solution obtained by first dry ashing the sample at 5500C. The filtered solution was used to determine: Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Cd, Pb, Se, Nl and P by means of atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Buck Scientific Model – 200A/210, Norwalk, Connecticut 06855) and phosphorus was determined colorimetrically by Spectronic 20 (Gallenkamp, UK) using the phosphovanado molybdate (AOAC method 948.09). all chemicals used were of analytical grade from the British Drug House (BDH, London, UK). The detection limits for the metals in aqueous solution were determined previously using the methods of Varian Techtron (1975). The optimal analytical range was 0.1 -0.5 absorbance units with coefficient of variation range from 0.9%-2.21%.

Mineral ratios

Ratios of Ca/Mg, Na/K, Ca/K, Na/Mg, Zn/Cu, Ca/P, Fe/Cu, Ca/Pb, K/Co, Fe/Pb, Fe/Co, Zn/Cd and [(K/(Ca+Mg)] were all calculated (Hatcock, 1985; Watts, 2010; Analytical Research Labs, Inc., 2012 ).

Mineral safety index (MSI)

The MSI (Hatcock, 1985) of Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, P, Cu and Se were calculated using the formula:

Calculated MSI=MSI/RAI x Research data result …………………………… equation (10).

MSI= Mineral Safety Index Table (Standard) value, RAI= Recommended Adult Intake.

Calculation of mineral percentage quantity

Formula: Each mineral/ divided by total mineral x 100 ………………………. equation (11)

Calculation of DRI/DV (%)

Formula: Nutrient value/ RDA (%) …………………………………………….equation (12)

(DRI= Daily Reference Intake)

Nutrient density calculation (Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 2016)

Steps: (i) divide nutrient by its RDA

(ii) divide Calorie amount by total daily calories [e.g take the calories per 100g of the food and divide it by the reference calorie intake of 2000 calories per day.]

(iii) divide the value from step (i) by the value from step (ii).

That is: (i). Nutrient value / RDA

(ii) Total food energy / Reference energy

(iii) Divide (i)/(ii).

Interpretation of ND

Other statistical evaluations made from the generated data:

i.Mineral Safety Index (MSI) differences (and percentage differences) between standard MSI and the calculated MSI among the relevant minerals.

ii.Statistics (mean, SD, CV%, correlation, CA, IFE, etc.) in the minor/ major minerals of the quail whole egg sample.

PubChem database

PubChem represents the database of chemical molecules and their activities against biological assays. The system is maintained by the National Centre for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), a component of the National Library of Medicine, which is part of the United States National Institute of Health (NIH); therefore, we can talk of PubChem Compound ID (PubChem and the American Chemical Society, 2005).

PubChem CID for the minerals under study

Mineral elements studied in this report were:

Calcium/Ca (PubChem CID:5460341); Magnesium/Mg (PubChem CID: 5462224); Potassium/K (PubChem CID: 5462222); Sodium/Na (PubChem CID: 5360545); Iron/Fe (PubChem CID: 23925); Manganese/Mn (PubChem CID: 23930); Zinc/Zn (PubChem CID: 23994); Copper/Cu (PubChem CID: 23978); Cobalt/Co (PubChem CID: 104730); Phosphorus/P (PubChem CID:6326970); Cadmium/Cd (PubChem CID: 23973); Lead/Pb (PubChem CID: 5352425); Selenium/Se (PubChem CID: 6326970) and Nickel/Ni (PubChem CID: 935).

 

RESULTS

The Table 1 contained the proximate and minerals composition as well as the percentage quantity of the minerals. Protein and crude fat values were high at respective values of (g/100g) 48.95 and 34.05. Carbohydrate was at a trace level of 0.05g/100g, crude fibre <0.01g/100g and low level of total ash (3.50g/100g). Among the minerals, the highest four minerals (and their percentage values were mg/100g/% value): P(822/37.97)> Na (553/25.55)> K (496/22.92)> Ca (237/10.94). The highest three trace minerals were (mg/100g/%): Fe (6.846/0.316) > Zn (5.613/0.259) > Cu (0.242/0.011). Mg was relatively low among the major minerals (43.74 mg/100g/2.020). All other minor minerals were at very trace levels of 0.001mg/100g – 0.128mg/100g or 0.0001 – 0.0059%. The lowest mineral levels were Cd (0.0010/0.0001) and Pb (0.0025/ 0.0001) respectively, both are toxic minerals.

Table 2 contained the crude fat analysis. The crude fat (CF), on conversion gave a value of 28.26g/100g of total fatty acid (TFA); that is, CF x conversion factor = 34.05g/100g x 0.83 = 28.26g/100g. The difference between CF and TFA gave a value of 5.789g/100g which was labelled as other lipids (OLs). TFA/CF (%) = 83.0; OLs/CF (%) =17.0 and OLs/TFA (%) =20.48. From the OLs, CF and TFA values, the following energy levels were generated in kJ/kcal/100g: CF (1260/306), TFA (1046/254), OLs (214/52.10). The analysed (proximate) fat levels had these ratios: CF: TFA (1.20:1.00), TFA: OLs (4.88:1.00), CF: OLs (5.88:1.00).

The proximate composition energy contribution from crude protein, crude fat and carbohydrate as reported in kJ/kcal/100g were reported in Table 3. Both protein and fat energy levels were high at respective levels of (kJ/kcal/100g): protein (832/196) and fat (1260/306) and respective percentage levels of 39.76 – 38.97 and 60.20 – 60.99. The energy value of carbohydrate was < 1.00 in both kJ and kcal units. The UEDP% was 23.86–23.38 at kJ and kcal units respectively.

The detailed procedure in the determination of water balance in the complete metabolism of the protein content was profiled in Table 4. The water deficit was 685 ml whereas the water balance was 97.9 ml. This water balance would be required to clean the secondary metabolites that could result in the crude protein metabolism of the quail egg sample.

The approximate weight equivalent for the energy requirement of an infant/adult consumer of whole quail egg could be seen in Table 5. For an adult requiring 3000 kcal / 2500 kcal per day, the egg equivalent requirement would be 597g /498g and an infant that requires 740 kcal would need 147 g of the whole egg. The weight ratios would be:

at 597: 498 = 1.20: 1.00

at 498: 147 = 3.38: 1.00

at 597: 147 = 4.05: 1.00

In Table 6, the minor minerals and the major minerals levels were tabulated under two different columns. For trace minerals, these minerals were shown: Fe, Cu, Se, Mn, Zn and their total (without the toxic metals of Pb and Cd, and the very low Ni); the major minerals were Ca, Mg, K, Na, P, and total.Total of minor/major minerals was 12.95 / 2152 mg/100 g, giving a ratio of 1.00: 166.The inferential analysis of the data in Table 6 was depicted in Table 7. These values were low as shown in the Table: Γxy, Γxy2 and IFE whereas Rxy and CA had high values. The low value of Γxy (0.1999) was not significant at α=0.05 where its value at 3 (df) was 0.878, which was much greater than 0.1999. Also, in Table 8, the descriptive statistics of the data from Table 6, was depicted. The mean and SD for trace minerals were low with high CV%, the mean and SD values in major minerals were high but relatively lower in the CV%. The pairings were as follows for trace/major: mean (2.59/430), SD (3.35/300) and CV% (129/69.68). The nutrient density of the proximate and mineral parameters was depicted in Table 9. Nutrient density (ND) was grouped into four classes: excellent, very good, good and below rating. Members in the excellent class were protein Co and Se; very good class members were Zn and P; good class members were crude fat and Fe whereas carbohydrate, crude fibre, Cu, Mn, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Ni were below the rating scales. The rating summary then was: excellent (3/16=18.75%); very good (2/16 = 12.50%); good (2/16=12.50%); outside rating (9/16=56.25%).

The mineral safety index of Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, P, Cu, and Se had their values in Table 10. The calculated MSI and the standard MSI were compared. The MSI calculated were greater than MSI reference for Na, Ca and Se but lower in Mg, Zn, Fe, P and Cu. From these observations, Na, Ca and Se might be deleterious to their consumers unless where they serve as supplement in a mixed diet.

In Table 11, the mineral ratio values of the whole egg of the common quail were depicted. Among the ratios, only Ca/Mg and Fe/Co were within the acceptable ideal range. Most other ratios were either below or above the acceptable ideal range. However, Ca/Pb, Fe/Pb and Zn/Cd being very above the acceptable ideal range were nutritionally advantageous as the nutritional minerals in the ratios would emasculate the deleterious effects of the toxic minerals during metabolism as appropriate.

  

DISCUSSION

In Table 1, both the protein and fat were high with low ash, but crude fibre, and carbohydrate were in traces. From literature, the protein of guinea fowl (Numidia meleagris) egg was 85.5 g/100 g, which is much higher than in the quail egg. However, total ash (1.24 g/100 g), crude fat (8.12 g/100 g), crude fibre (not detected, ND) and total fatty acids (6.74 g/100 g) all in guinea fowl (Adeyeye, 2010) were all lower to the corresponding values in the quail. The ash content in both chicken and duck eggs were 1.23 g/100 g and 1.24 g/100 g respectively (Adenowo et al., 1999). The ash (3.50 g/100 g) in the quail egg might be due to higher mineral concentration in the quail egg than those cited from literature. The sample carbohydrate of 0.05 g/100 g was lower than in the duck of 0.09 g/100 g and also lower than the values of 0.59 – 1.03 g/100 g in the eggs cited above (Adenowo et al., 1999). The fat level of 34.05 g/100 g was much higher than the literature report of (g/100 g): 11.5 (chicken), 11.7 (guinea fowl), 11.9 (turkey) and 13.4 (duck) and correspondingly their values of total fatty acids were lower.

The pattern of mineral concentration in the quail egg appeared quite different from those of other bird eggs. For example, the highest concentrated mineral in the guinea fowl egg was Fe at 56.6 mg/100 g and followed as number two was P at 35.5 mg/100 g (Adeyeye, 2010). In Table 1, P (822 mg/100 g) was the most concentrated in the quail and number two was Na (553 mg/100 g). Further, a one-to-one mapping of the minerals in the eggs of both quail and guinea fowl ran thus; quail/ guinea fowl (mg/100 g): Na (553/18.0); K (496/13.6); Ca (237/3.68); Mg (43.74/10.8); Zn (5.613/2.88); Fe (6.846/56.6); Mn (0.1216/ND); Cu (0.2415/ND); P (822/35.5). The phosphorus level in the present study was also much higher than the egg literature level of 207 mg/100 g and also 11 mg/100 g in whole, raw eggs of chicken (Watt and Merrill, 1963).

The crude fat analysis of the sample into TFA and OLs, with their accompanying distribution of energy, had been depicted in Table 2. The energy of these various parameters of CF/TFA/OLs in kJ/100 g were 1260/1046/214 or in kcal/100 g: 306/254/52.1 respectively. OLs components could have been sterols, phospholipids and sphingolipids. The TFA content of the CF was high at 28.26g /100 g (83.0%) but low in OLs at 5.789 g/100 g (17.0%). Whereas the content ratio of CF:TFA was 1.20:1.00, it was 5.88: 1.00 in CF: OLs.

In Table 3 were exhibited the energy content (kJ and kcal in 100g) in the protein, fat and carbohydrate. The carbohydrate content and its energy contribution was < 1.00 in any of the content and energy units considered. Both the protein and fat contents as well as their energy contents were high but higher in fat than in protein (1260 kJ/100g > 832 kJ/100g respectively). The utilizable energy due to protein was 23.86% / 23.38%. The UEDP% has less than enough protein (energy wise) that is enough to prevent protein energy malnutrition (PEM) in a child of 26.0 maximum requirement, 39.0 maximum requirement for an infant but more than enough for an adult requirement of 8.0 (FAO/WHO/UNU, 1985). Also, 23.86/23.38 < 49.3% (N. meleagris) egg (Adeyeye, 2010). Also, the UEDP% values were much lower than the observations in the organs of Muscovy duck hen like (kJ/kcal): brain: (43.3 / 43.2), eyes: (11.0 / 11.0), gizzard (44.5 / 44.4), liver (44.1 / 44.1), tongue (46.1 / 46.0), heart (45.0 / 44.7), muscle (49.0 / 48.9), skin (1.95 / 1.96) (Adeyeye, 2020). In the eight organs of Numidia meleagris, UEDP% values were: eyes: (10.7), muscle: (51.6), skin (0.650), heart: (44.8), gizzard (44.3), brain (47.9), liver (45.4), and egg shell (2.29%) (Adeyeye, 2014). From Table 3, PEF%≫PEP%>>>PEC% in the sample. The PEF% of 60.20 / 60.99 were higher than 30% as the recommended total energy requirement by NACNE (1983) and 35% (PEF%) of COMA (1984) recommendation. The quail egg values were higher than in the organs of N. meleagris: eyes (0.550), muscle (8.16), skin (0.260), heart (9.75), gizzard (4.71), brain (2.83), liver (2.91) and egg shell (3.73). However, the reverse is the case in PEC%. PEC% in quail egg was 0.200/0.0406 but the organs under reference had such values from 5.77 – 98.6. In the PEP%, the present value of 39.76/38.97 were either < or > the values in the N. meleagris. (Adeyeye, 2010). The total energy content in the proximate values of quail egg was 2093 kJ/100g, it was 1769 kJ/100g in the egg of N. meleagris (Adeyeye, 2010).

Table 4 contained the water balance required for complete protein metabolism in the sample; it was 97.9 ml. This is the water required for excretion of urea and sulphate resulting from protein metabolism of the sample. Stock fish values of water deficit was much higher than this at 157–170 (Adeyeye and Olaleye, 2022); this must at least be partially due to the high protein content of the stock fish. Water balance in the Muscovy duck-hen organs were low to high at range values of 6.48–160 ml (Adeyeye, 2020). Water deficit in the sample could be made up for from water intake.

Daily energy requirements and the sample equivalent (in g) were evaluated and showed in Table 5 for both adults and infants. For adult requirement in the sample, 2500 kcal – 3000 kcal would require 498 g – 597 g/sample. In the stock fish, an adult would need to consume 691–723 g for 2500 kcal model and 829-867g for 3000 kcal (Adeyeye and Olaleye, 2022). The infant energy need of 740kcal would require 147g equivalent of sample; stock fish would have to consume 204-214g. Some other literature values were; Acanthurus monroviae, adult: 733g and 880g (for 2500kcal model and 3000kcal model respectively), infant:220; in Lutjanus goreensis, adult: 735 and 882g respectively; infant: 221g (Adeyeye et al, 2016). In Muscovy duck-hen organs, the values were, 2500kcal, sample equivalent (g) was 617-644; 3000kcal sample equivalent (g) was 741-773; 740kcal sample equivalent (g) was 186-191 (Adeyeye, 2020). In treated wheat (Triticum durum), these observations were made: 740 kcal = 208.62g (raw), 207.69g (fermented), 207.98g (germinated), 2500 kcal = 704.80g (raw), 701.66g (fermented), 702.62g (germinated); 3000kcal = 845.76g (raw), 841.99g (fermented), 843.14g (germinated) (Adeyeye, 2024).

In Table 6, both minor and major mineral nutrients were tabulated under different columns. Harper (1984) had categorised these macrominerals as being essential: Ca, Mg, P, K, Na and these trace elements: Co, Cu, Fe, Mn. However, Se has been classified may be essential.

The inferential statistics in Table 7 showed the Ґxy to be non-significant at Ґxy = 0.05. But the CA >>> IFE at values of 0.9798 >>> 0.0202. The CA and IFE work together in this type of statistics. The CA represents the error of prediction between two compared similar entities whereas IFE represent the reduction in error of such prediction. CA + IFE = 1.00 or 100% (as the case may be). In this sample, the level of alienation (CA) between the two mineral groups was high. This meant that the error of prediction of relationship was high at 97.98% and reduction of 2.02%. Since CA was so high, it could be argued that there was virtually very minimal relationship between the two groups. That is the biochemical, physiological and other metabolic functionalities of minor minerals could not be carried out independently by minor minerals nor by the major minerals unless they have a joint metabolism. The Table 8 only demonstrated the descriptive statistical differences between the minor and the major minerals in terms of mean, SD and CV%.

The full details of the nutrient density (ND) calculation steps were shown in Table 9, these involved analytical parameter content (g/100g or mg/100g), RDA (from various sources), DRI, DV, ND and rating. The DRI/DV (%) and ND determine the rating of a particular nutrient. For a nutrient to be in the excellent category, the rule is that it should obey this rule: DRI/DV >= 75% OR Density >= 7.6 AND DRI/DV >= 10% (protein, Co, Se were here); rule for very good group: DRI/DV >= 50% OR Density >= 3.4 AND DRI/DV >= 5% (Zn and P were in this group); good group rule: DRI/DV >= 25% OR Density >= 1.5 AND DRI/DV >= 2.5% (Fe and fat were in this group); other analytical parameters were below these ranking groups.

The MSI values in Table 10 showed that the calculated MSI in Na, Ca and Se were each > MSI (reference). Once a particular mineral is > the reference, the likelihood is that such a mineral might be deleterious to its consumer unless such nutrient is present in a mixed diet where they may serve as supplements. Such would be the case for Na, Ca and Se in quail egg sample. However, the MSI calculated < MSI reference in Mg, Zn, Fe, P and Cu, such minerals would not be deleterious to the consumers even if consumed alone in a diet. K, Mn, Co MSI were not determined because they have no reference MSI.

Some nutritional importance of the minerals would now be briefly discussed before going to discuss the mineral ratios.

Nickel may affect human health through infections by Ni-dependent bacteria, but Ni may be an essential nutrient for bacteria living in the large intestine, in effect functioning as a prebiotic (Zambelli and Ciurh, 2013). Tolerable upper intake level of dietary Ni is 1 mg/day as soluble Ni salts. Estimated dietary intake is 70–100 μg/day, < 10% is absorbed. What is absorbed is excreted in urine (Nickel in National Academy Press, 2001). Present Ni level in sample was 8.00 μg.

Manganese is present as a coenzyme in many biological processes, including macronutrient metabolism, bone formation and free radical defense systems. It is a critical component in dozens of proteins and enzymes (Erikson and Ascher, 2019). In the human brain, the Mn is bound to manganese metalloproteins, most notably glutamine synthase in astrocytes (Taked, 2003). Adequate intake of Mn for adult men and women is 2.3 and 1.8 mg/day, respectively, being the Tolerable Upper Intake Level for adults of 11 mg/day (Institute of Medicine (US), 2001). Mn level in the sample was 0.1216 mg/100g.

Selenium is an essential component of various enzymes and proteins, called selenoproteins, that help to make DNA and protect against cell damage and infections; these proteins are also involved in reproduction and the metabolism of thyroid hormones (Selenium, Harvard...). The RDA of Se is 55 μg/day (WHO/FAO/IAEA, 1996) for both adult males and females by Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine. Tolerable upper limit is 0.4 mg/day (WHO/FAO/IAEA, 1996). Present value was 0.1280 mg/100g.

Zinc was discovered as an essential trace mineral for the growth of living organisms in 1961 for humans (Zinc-2016). Zn is involved in wound healing, protein synthesis, DNA synthesis, cell division, cellular metabolism and is required for more than 200 enzyme reactions within the body (HHS, 2016). The established RDI of Zn is 1 mg or 0.2 mg/kg. Zn level in the sample was 5.6134 mg/100g.

Copper is an essential trace mineral and found abundantly in the brain, liver, heart, lungs, kidneys, pancreas, muscles and bones. It plays a major role in oxygen transport, mental and cognitive function, immunity, energy production, neurotransmitter production and bone and tissue maintenance (Cognitive Function, 2016). The established RDI for Cu is 1–3 mg/day. Cu level in the sample was 0.2415 mg/100g.

Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. It is used structurally to build bones, teeth and a messenger in cell signalling. The bone serves as a Ca reserve in case of dietary deficiency. The US RDA of Ca is 1000–1200 mg/day for adults (Shaffer, 2023). Ca level in sample was 237 mg/100g.

Phosphorus forms a part of the bones in the form of the mineral hydroxyapatite. It is used in cell membrane and is part of the energy molecules, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP). DNA and RNA also contain phosphate. Phosphorus RDA is 70mg for adults (Shaffer, 2003). Phosphorus level in the sample was 822 mg/100g.

Magnesium main body functions include energy production, synthesis of biomolecules and as a structural component of cell membranes and chromosomes. It is also used in ion transport, cell signalling and cell migration. The RDA for Mg is 400–420mg for men and 310–320 for women (Shaffer, 2003). Sample Mg content was 43.74 mg/100g.

Sodium helps to maintain proper blood volume and blood pressure. Most adults require between 1.5 and 3.8grams of NaCl per day. Potassium is an electrolyte (like sodium). K is a cofactor for a number of enzymes. Low K levels can be dangerous, resulting in fatigue, muscle cramps and abdominal pain. Adults need about 4.7g of K per day. K, Na and Cl⁻ maintain charge gradients across cell walls (Shaffer, 2003). Na value in sample was 553 mg/100g and K was 496 mg/100g.

Iron is used in red blood cells to carry oxygen to the tissues and is also a critical component of many metabolic proteins and enzymes. Fe is present in the body as heme Fe and non-heme Fe. Heme Fe is bound within a ring-like molecule called porphyrin. Heme is present in red blood cells. Non-heme Fe is used in energy production and other metabolic functions. RDA of Fe for men is 8 mg, for women 18mg and for pregnant women 27mg (Shaffer, 2003). Fe level in sample was 6.8463 mg/100g.

Cobalt is present in the body as a part of vitamin B12, which is involved in manufacture of blood cells and nervous system function (Shaffer, 2003). Co level in the sample was 0.0161 mg/100g.

The nutrient elements have been defined and are considered essential for many biological functions in the human body. The toxic elements or "heavy metals" are well-known for their interference upon normal biochemical function. They are commonly found in the environment and therefore are present in some degree, in all biological systems. However, these metals clearly pose a concern for toxicity when accumulation occurs in excess. Low levels of toxic metals were observed in the sample (mg/100g): Pb (0.0025) and Cd (0.0010). A calculated comparison of two elements to each other is called a ratio. To calculate a ratio value, the first mineral is divided by the second mineral level. If the synergistic relationship (or ratio) between certain minerals in the body is disturbed, studies show that normal biological functions and metabolic activity can be adversely affected. Even at extremely low concentrations, the synergistic and/or antagonistic relationships between minerals still exist, which can indirectly affect metabolism. Toxic ratios research has shown that toxic minerals can also produce an antagonistic effect on various essential minerals eventually leading to disturbances in their metabolic utilization. In ratios, reference ranges are considered as guidelines for comparison with reported test values.

The mineral ratios of the whole egg sample of common quail were profiled in Table 11. Ca/Mg was within the acceptable ideal range; therefore, there would be no antagonism between Ca and Mg on consumption. This ratio is otherwise called blood-sugar ratio. Na/K was low to acceptable range, the ratio is otherwise called life-death ratio because it is so critical. The nutritional minerals such as Ca, P, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mg, Li, Zn and others will impact the Na/K ratios as well. The Ca/K was also low to the acceptable range. Ca/K ratio is called thyroid ratio because Ca and K play a vital role in regulating thyroid activity. This ratio could also be associated with adrenal activity. Ca/K ratio can be affected by Fe, Zn, Cu, Se, Li, Co, Mo and others (ARL, 2012). The Na/Mg ratio value in the sample was much higher than the acceptable ideal range. Na/Mg ratio is referred to as the adrenal ratio because Na levels are directly associated with adrenal gland function. This elevated ratio could lead to increased adrenal cortical activity. Mg deficiency is known to lead to increase in the stress response so the lower the Mg level is found in the sample, the greater the likelihood of stress response. The stage of likely stress may be determined when viewing the Na/K ratio in relation to the Na/Mg ratio. A low sample Na/Mg ratio would indicate a likely reduced adrenal expression; here, Na/Mg ratio (12.65) was high.Using the Zn/Cu ratio is a much more effective method of evaluating Zn and Cu readings than considering either Cu or Zn levels alone. The Zn/Cu ratio was much higher than the acceptable ideal range. The elevated Zn/Cu ratio would lead to elevation of progesterone and testosterone dominance relative to estrogen and low Zn/Cu would lead to the reverse. Zn and Cu are also related to the antioxidant activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD); their balance would reflect the activity of Zn and Cu activated SOD (Watts, 2010).Ca/P ratio was lower than the acceptable ideal range. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is represented by the Ca/P relationship. The sample was poor in Ca as related to P as shown in this ratio. The Fe/Cu ratio value was very much above the acceptable ideal range. The relationships between Fe and Cu are important for many reasons. For example, a disruption in their equilibrium can lead to serious consequences in normal cellular activity. An elevated Fe/Cu ratio in the diet leads to increased free radical production, particularly lipid peroxidation, that can lead to mitochondrial damage (Watts, 2010). The corresponding reduction in Cu could increase the damage from superoxide radicals due to suppression of Cu activated SOD. An elevation or reduction in the Fe/Cu ratio is associated with a decrease in the utilization of Fe by affecting the ability to incorporate Fe into hemoglobin.

The toxic ratios show the relationships of the protective nutrient minerals relative to the heavy metals. Everyone is exposed and has heavy metals ever present in their body; the higher the toxic ratios, the better. However, there may be no clinical significance of the ratios being double, triple or even ten times higher than the minimal acceptable level (Watts, 2010). The acceptable level of Ca/Pb ratio is 84:1. Since Ca reduces Pb absorption and retention within the body, Ca is considered protective of excess Pb retention. The ratio of Ca to Pb should be at least 84 times higher than Pb in order to be protective or to prevent the adverse effect of Pb within the body (Watts, 2010).The toxic ratios in the samples were Ca/Pb, Fe/Pb and Zn/Cd. The paired acceptable ideal of the toxic mineral ratios and the sample mineral ratios were: Ca/Pb (84–168 / 94,763); Fe/Pb (4.40–8.80 / 2,739); Zn/Cd (500–1000 / 2,593). A Ca/Pb ratio below 84:1 would lead to potential for Pb interference with metabolic processes. Heavy metals interfere with normal metabolic processes due to their ability to displace nutritional minerals or poison enzyme function by their attachment to proteins. For example, Cd has a very similar structure as the mineral Zn. Cd also has a higher atomic weight. When Cd enters the body, and if not excreted, will become stored in tissues. If adequate amounts of Zn are not present within the cell to be protective, Cd can then displace Zn (Watts, 2010). Hence, Ca is protective of excess Pb to the level of 94,763 times; Fe is protective of excess Pb to the level of 2,739 times; Zn is protective of excess Cd to the level of 2,593 times.

Both K/Co and Fe/Co are within the group of nutrient ratios, their relationships tallied with the observations in the toxic mineral ratios. However, Fe/Co had comparison of 440/425 making the sample to be within the acceptable range. The K/Co comparison was 2000/30818 showing high level of K to very low level of Co. The milliequivalent ratio of the sample was slightly higher than reference balance; this was due to high value of K in the formula.

The ratios in Table 11 would result into these oxidation types (ARL, 2012).

Fast oxidation: Ca/K ratio < 4:1 and Na/Mg ratio > 4.17:1

Slow oxidation: Ca/K ratio > 4:1 and Na/Mg ratio < 4.17:1

Mixed oxidation: Ca/K ratio > 4:1 and Na/Mg ratio > 4.17:1 or Ca/K ratio < 4:1 and Na/Mg ratio < 4.17:1

Of these three oxidation types, the fast oxidation would be the lot of the sample as the following was observed: Ca/K ratio was 0.4775 (< 4:1) and Na/Mg ratio was 5.416 (> 4.17:1).

  

CONCLUSION

This work reported the proximate, metabolic water balance (MWB) and nutrient density (ND) of the whole egg of the common quail found in Nigeria. Proximate parameters / their energy levels were high in the sample; parameter [quantity(g/100g) / energy(kJ/kcal)]: CP (48.95 / 832 / 196); CF (34.05 / 1260 / 306); TFA (28.26 / 1046 / 254); OLs (5.79 / 214 / 52.1) and these proximate parameter percentage values: TFA/CF (83.0); OLs/CF (17.0) and OLs/TFA (20.48). Both CHO and fibre were below the trace level whereas appreciable level of ash was present. The UEDP (%) (23.86%–23.38%) was only good for adults (8%) to prevent PEM but lower for infants (39.0%) and children (26.0%). The water balance for MWB was low at 97.9ml to excrete the sulphate and urea produced in complete protein metabolism. All the major minerals (Ca, Mg, K, Na and P) were highly concentrated; minor minerals (Fe, Cu, Zn and Se) were averagely concentrated whereas the toxic minerals (Cd and Pb) were at ultra-trace levels. The minor/major minerals could not be independent of each other in their biochemical and physiological functions; this was observed in the inferential statistics result of the peer. Protective ratios of the nutrient minerals over the toxic minerals were copious in these three; ratio (ideal range / sample result): Ca/Pb (84–168 / 94,763), Fe/Pb (4.40–8.80 / 2,739) and Zn/Cd (500–1000 / 2,593); all these would lead to the excretion of Pb and Cd from the body. The oxidation type of the egg sample minerals would be the "fast type" as shown in this combination: Ca/K ratio was 0.4775 (< 4:1) and Na/Mg ratio was 5.416 (> 4.17:1). The ND rating showed the egg to be an excellent source of CP, Se and Co; very good source of Zn and P; good source of CF and Fe. High levels of CP, CF, TFA, Fe, Zn, Ca, K, Na, P and Se would make the quail whole egg to be a good supplement in many mixed diets where such parameters (see above) are low or inadequate.

 

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Table 1. Proximate (g/100g), minerals (mg/100g) and mineral percentage value (%) of the whole egg composition of the common quail

1.                           —                        Crude protein                      48.95                                   —

2.                           —                        Crude fat                              34.05                                   —

3.                           —                        Carbohydrate                       0.05                                     —

4.                           —                        Total ash                              3.50                                     —

5.                           —                        Crude fibre                          < 0.01                                  —

6.                           —                        Moisture                              13.50                                   —

7.                           23925                  Fe                                         6.8463                                 0.3162

8.                           23978                  Cu                                        0.2415                                 0.0112

9.                           104730                Co                                        0.0161                                 0.0007

10.                         23930                  Mn                                       0.1216                                 0.0056

11.                         23994                  Zn                                        5.6134                                 0.2593

12.                         5352425              Pb                                         0.0025                                 0.0001

13.                         5460341              Ca                                        237                                      10.943

14.                         5462224              Mg                                       43.744                                 2.0204

15.                         5462222              K                                          496                                      22.917

16.                         5360545              Na                                        553                                      25.550

17.                         6326970              P                                           822                                      37.971

18.                         6326970              Se                                         0.1280                                 0.0059

19.                         23973                  Cd                                        0.0010                                 0.0001

 

Table 2. Crude fat analysis of the whole egg composition of the common quail

1             Crude fat (CF)                                                                                               34.05g/100g

2.            Total fatty acid (TFA)=CFx0.83*                                                                 28.26g/100g

3.            Other lipids (OLs)                                                                                         5.789g/100g

4.            (TFA/CF) %                                                                                                  83.0

5.            (OLs/CF) %                                                                                                  17.0

6.            (OLs/TFA) %                                                                                                20.48

7.            Energy contribution

               (a) CF    :                             kJ                                                                      1260

                                                           kcal                                                                   306

               (b) TFA:                              kJ                                                                      1046

                                                           kcal                                                                   254

               (c) OLS:                              kJ                                                                      214

                                                           kcal                                                                   52.10

8.            Ratios;                                CF: TFA                                                            1.20:1.00

                                                          TFA: OLs                                                          4.88:1.00

                                                          CF: OLs                                                            5.88:1.00

*Conversation factor from CF to TFA; OLs will include sterols, phospholipids, spingolipids and probably some fat soluble vitamins

 

Table 3. Energy contribution from protein, fat and carbohydrate of whole egg of common quail

1.                           Protein                                 832                      196                       39.76                    38.97

2.                           Fat                                       1260                     306                       60.20                    60.99

3.                           Carbohydrate                      0.850                    0.200                    0.0406                  0.0398

UEDP = utilization of energy due to protein

 

Table 4. Water requirement for the complete metabolism of the protein content of the common quail

1.                           Protein (g/100g)                                               48.95

2.                           Protein energy (= P) kcal/100g                       196

3.                           Water excretion (=3P) ml (=Qml)                  587

4.                           Water deficit (350/100 x P = T) ml                 685

5.                           Water balance (= T-Q) ml                               97.9

 

Table 5. Approximate sample weight equivalents to the energy requirements per day of adults and infants from the proximate composition of the common quail whole egg

 

Table 6. This Table depicts the trace and major minerals whose values are > 0. 100mg/100g

 

Table 7.     Inferential statistics of the data presented in Table 6 (trace and major mineral composition)

1.                           Correlation coefficient (rxy)                                                         0.1999

2.                           Variance (rxy2)                                                                             0.0399

rxy=0.05 (level of significance) at 0.878 critical level

 

Table 8. Descriptive statistics of the data presented in Table 6 (trace and major mineral composition)

 

Table 9.   Nutritional density values of the proximate and mineral composition values of the whole egg of common quail (: proximate in g/100g and minerals in mg/100g)

1.            Protein     48.95                  50g          0.979                    97.9                       5.656                    Excellent

2.            Fat               34.0                78g          0.436                    43.6                      2.519                     Good

3.            CHO           0.05                 275g        0.0002                  0.02                       0.0012                  Below

4.            Fibre           <0.01               28g          0.0004                  0.04                       0.0023                  Below

5.            Fe                6.846               18mg       0.3804                  38.04                    2.198                    Good

6.            Cu               0.2415             1000µg    0.2415                  24.15                    1.395                    Below

7.            Co               0.0161             8µg          2.0125                  201                       11.63                     Excellent

8.            Mn              0.1216             2.30mg    0.0529                  5.29                      0.3056                   Below

9.            Zn               5.613                11mg      0.5103                  51.03                    2.948                     Very good

10.          Ca               237                  1000mg   0.2369                  23.69                    1.369                     Below

11.          Mg              43.74               420mg     0.1042                  10.42                    0.6020                   Below

12.          K                 496                 3400mg    0.1460                  14.60                    0.8434                   Below

13.          Na               553                  2300mg   0.2405                  24.05                    1.389                     Below

14.          P                  822                 1250mg    0.6577                  65.77                    3.800                     Very good

15.          Se                0.1280            50µg         2.560                    256                        14.789                  Excellent

RDA=recommended daily amount; DRI=nutrient value; DV=recommended daily value; RDA was sourced from various platforms

 

Table 10. Mineral safety index (MSI) of Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, P, Cu and Se of the whole common quail eggs

mg          (sample) (reference)

2.            Ca          1200      19.73       >10.0    9.734                    49.33                    Deleterious

3.            Mg         400        1.640       <15.0    -13.36                   -814                     Not deleterious

4.            Zn          15          12.35       <33.0    -20.65                   -167                     Not deleterious

5.            Fe           15          3.060       <6.70    -3.637                   -119                     Not deleterious

6.            P             1200      6.848       <10.0    -3.152                   -46.02                  Not deleterious

7.            Cu          3            2.657       <33.0    -30.34                   -1142                   Not deleterious

RAI = recommended adult intake; >=greater than; <=less than; No standard MSI for K, Mn, Co

 

Table 11. The mineral ratio values of the whole egg of common quail

                ratio                     balance ideal                      ideal range                          egg

2.                           Na/K                                    2.40                                      1.4-3.4                                 1.115

3.                           Ca/K                                    4.20                                      2.2-6.2                                 0.4775

4.                           Na/Mg                                 4.00                                      2-6                                       12.65

5.                           Zn/Cu                                  8.00                                      4-12                                     23.24

6.                           Ca/P                                     2.60                                      1.5-3.6                                 0.2882

7.                           Fe/Cu                                   0.90                                      0.2-1.6                                 28.35

8.                           Ca/Pb                                   42                                         84-168                                 94763

9.                           K/Co                                    750                                       2000                                    30818

aa= not available

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